Problem Solving, Essay – genius homework essays
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8
Problem Solving
Human ability to solve novel problems greatly surpasses that of any other species,
and this ability depends on the advanced evolution of the prefrontal cortex in
humans. We have already noted the role of the prefrontal cortex in a number of
higher-level cognitive functions: language, imagery, and memory. It is generally
thought that the prefrontal cortex performs more than these specific functions, however,
and plays a major role in the overall organization of behavior.
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The regions of the
prefrontal cortex that we have discussed so far tend to be ventral (toward the bottom)
and posterior (toward the back), and many of these regions are left lateralized.
In contrast, dorsal (toward the top), anterior (toward the front), and right-hemisphere
prefrontal structures tend to be more involved in the organization of behavior. These
are the prefrontal regions that have expanded the most in the human brain.
Goel and Grafman (2000) describe a patient, PF, who suffered damage to his
right anterior prefrontal cortex as the result of a stroke. Like many patients with damage
to the prefrontal cortex, PF appears normal and even intelligent, and he scored in
the superior range on an intelligence test. In fact, he performed well on most tests,
although he did have difficulty with the Tower of Hanoi problem described later in this
chapter. Nonetheless, for all these surface appearances of normality, there were profound
intellectual deficits. He had been a successful architect before his stroke but
was forced to retire due to loss of the ability to design. He was able to get some work
as a draftsman. Goel and Grafman gave PF a problem that involved redesigning their
laboratory space. Although he was able to speak coherently about the problem, he
was unable to make any real progress on the solution. A comparably trained architect
without brain damage achieved a good solution in a couple of hours. It seems that the
stroke affected only PF’s most highly developed intellectual abilities.
This chapter and Chapter 9 will look at what we know about human problem
solving. In this chapter, we will answer the following questions: • What does it mean to characterize human problem solving as a search of a
problem space? • How do humans learn methods, called operators, for searching the problem
space?
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• How do humans select among different operators for searching a problem
space? • How can past experience affect the availability of different operators and the
success of problem-solving efforts?
•The Nature of Problem Solving
A Comparative Perspective on Problem Solving
Figure 8.1 shows the relative sizes of the prefrontal cortex in various mammals
and illustrates the dramatic increase in humans. This increase supports the
advanced problem solving that only humans are capable of. Nonetheless, one
can find instances of interesting problem solving in other species, particularly
in the higher apes such as chimpanzees. The study of problem solving in other
species offers perspective on our own abilities. Köhler (1927) performed some
of the classic studies on chimpanzee problem solving. Köhler was a famous
German gestalt psychologist who came to America in the 1930s. During World
War I, he found himself trapped on Tenerife in the Canary Islands. On the
island, he found a colony of captive chimpanzees, which he studied, taking
particular interest in the problem-solving behavior of the animals. His best
participant was a chimpanzee named Sultan. One problem posed to Sultan was
FIGURE 8.1 The relative proportions of the frontal lobe given over to the prefrontal cortex in
six mammals. Note that these brains are not drawn to scale and that the human brain is really
much larger in absolute size. (After Fuster, 1989. Adapted by permission of the publisher. © 1989 by Raven Press.)
Squirrel monkey Cat Rhesus monkey
Dog Chimpanzee Human
Brain Structures
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